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It is
important to look at the process of transporting animals,
as many animals are injured or even die during
transport. Also, many carcasses destined for slaughter
are bruised, and this represents a huge loss to the livestock
industries.
In beef,
losses from bruising and losses through
death and serious injury of railed cattle are very costly.
Losses
from bruising in beef cattle from pasture to
slaughter in Australia have been estimated at $42 million
per annum (Eldridge et al., 1988).
This
chapter will examine the transport of cattle,
pigs, sheep and very briefly, deer, under the following
headings:
1.
Treatment of animals before transport
2.
Loading and unloading facilities
3.
Transport and adjusting to a new environment
4.
Recommendations
The
process of transport involves all these factors and
all are important to the well-being of the animal as well
as to the quality of the slaughtered carcass.
TREATMENT
OF ANIMALS BEFORE TRANSPORT
1.
Animals are usually handled intensively before transport.
They are grouped together, often in unfamiliar
groups ready for loading onto a truck. It has been shown
that mixing of strange animals will cause restlessness
and agonistic encounters leading to bruising (Pearson
and Kilgour, 1980). Mixing of unfamiliar animals at any
stage results in an increase in agonistic behaviour,
poorer welfare and poorer meat quality (Knowles,
1999). Once the social organisation has been established,
fighting diminishes. If sheep, cattle and pigs can
be grouped together for two or three days before
transporting so that they become
familiar with each other, the stress of
transporting will be much less.
2.
Horns account for about half of all bruising in horned
cattle (Mieschke et al., 1974), so cattlemen should
dehorn calves or breed polled animals. Hornless animals
in a mixed group bruise more than those transported
separately, whereas bruising is the same for all
horned animals (Wythes, 1981).
3. If
animals are familiarised with the yards and handling
procedures when young, the potential stress will be
reduced.
4.
Groups of animals should be about the same size for
transportation.
5. One
of the key factors is the handling by the stockman.
If the animals are handled quietly and gently, the
stress will be reduced.
6. The
design of yards to improve the flow of sheep and
cattle is important.
The use
of dogs in herding sheep often causes the
animals to stand alert as a primary response, often
accompanied by a covert increase in heart rate
(Baldock et al., 1990).
Drafting
prior to transport is more stressful than dipping
and drenching, and is represented by a significant
increase in plasma cortisol levels (Hargreaves et al.,
1990).
The use
of a crush can often cause a greater stress
response than drafting or penning. The release of red
blood cells from the spleen is a common response to
handling distress in red deer (Carragher et al., 1997).
Pigs that
have had handling experience tend to move
through loading facilities more quickly than pigs
that have had little handling (Abbott et al., 1994b).
Pigs with
previous handling experience have improved
carcass quality, as they are not as adversely
affected by pre-slaughter handling in lairage (Abbott et
al., 1997a).
Pigs with
previous handling experience show paler
meat, due to enhanced postmortem glycogen breakdown,
but, importantly, this is not accompanied by a
higher incidence of pale, soft, exudative (PSE) meat
(Generink N.A. et al., 1998).
LOADING
AND UNLOADING FACILITIES
This is a
critical area in the process of transport. Poorly
designed loading ramps, over-use of force and lack of
understanding of animal behaviour all contribute to both
physical damage and stress.
There is
a difference in design for chutes used only
for unloading trucks to those which are used for both
loading and unloading (Grandin, 1980). If at all possible,
it is better to have a type of chute for loading and another
for unloading. A chute used for unloading any type of
livestock should be wide and straight to provide a clear,
unimpeded path. In packing plants a wide unloading
chute (2.4 m wide) is recommended by Grandin (1978).
This type of chute must never be used to load livestock.
A chute
used for loading only, should have high solid
sides to prevent animals from seeing out, and a narrow
curved single-file chute is the most efficient. If the chute
is going to be used for loading and unloading, care must
be taken not to curve it too sharply. If the chute has too
sharp a curve the animals will often baulk and refuse to
leave the truck because the chute appears to be a dead
end (Grandin, 1978). Either a curve or a 15-degree
bend is recommended to prevent the cattle from seeing
the truck until they are part way up the ramp.
Observations (Grandin, 1980) indicate that the most
efficient chutes had solid fences and an inside radius of
3.5–5 m. A radius tighter than 3.5 m is likely to cause
baulking problems when the cattle are unloaded. The
inside width should be about 70 cm for mature cattle so
they are unable to turn around in the chute. If it is used
exclusively for loading calves, the inside width can be
50–60 cm. The sides of the chute should be at least
1.5 m high for cattle, but if Brahmans are being loaded,
or if the cattle are wild, the sides should be raised to
1.8 m high (Grandin, 1978).
Cattle
and pigs prefer to walk up steps rather than
inclines, and chutes suitable for both species should
have steps with a 10 cm rise and a 30 cm tread width
(Grandin, 1978).
A common
problem in poorly designed loading chutes
is bunching and jamming of livestock at the junction
between the single file ramp and the crowding pen.
Bruises are prevented if this transition is smooth and
gradual (Grandin, 1978). Where a
wide variety of trucks is going to be used,
adjustable chutes are ideal, as they can be raised and
lowered to load or unload the bottom or top deck
(Grandin, 1978).
Straight
raceways cause animals to baulk, because
they perceive the truck as a dead end (Grigor et al.,
1998a).
There are
conflicting data to suggest that loading
animals from darkened to illuminated areas reduces
stress or increases efficiency (Grigor et al., 1998a).
Initially
after loading, urination and defecation is
very frequent but declines as transport begins (Fraser,
1980).
During
rail transit, cattle rarely alter their position.
They align their bodies at right angles to the direction of
travel (Fraser, 1980).
In
horses, transport by road over short and long distances
is found to suppress feeding behaviour, elevate
heart rate and lead to unnatural body postures causing
weight loss and fatigue (Warren et al., 1995).
Overloading and underloading of trucks increases
bruising (Grandin, 1995c).
TRANSPORT AND ADJUSTING TO A NEW
ENVIRONMENT
The
actual transporting of an animal is probably one of
the most traumatic periods of its life. It leaves the
security of a known environment and is
subjected to motion, changes in
temperature, ventilation, noise levels, smells
and changes in group size and density. Short transportation
periods cause rises in sheep plasma cortisol
of moderate to high levels (66 ng/ml) compared to minimal
disturbance levels (36 ng/ml). Long transportation
periods and a new environment cause complex
changes in corticosteroid levels in both directions, which
may extend over some months (Pearson and Kilgour,
1980).
Transport
can cause various problems apart from
physical bruising and damage, including:
1.
transit erythema—red skin due to urine soakage;
2.
transit tetany—metabolic upset caused by lack of
food and water. The animals lie down and coma results.
It is common in cows, ewes and ponies;
3.
transit or shipping fever—usually a bacterial infection
(Pasteurellosis) in fatigued animals, and particularly
affects cattle;
4.
fatigue and exposure.
BEHAVIOUR
OF ANIMALS DURING TRANSPORT AND ON ARRIVAL
AT NEW ENVIRONMENT
SHEEP
The
effects of different modes of transport on the behaviours
of sheep has been reviewed by Kilgour (1976).
1.
Road transport.
Following completion of a road journey,
lambs grazed briefly (2–3 hours) and spent the
next 23 hours resting, then returned to their field. Where
animals have not been able to lie down, resting takes
precedence over feeding or arrival (Ewbank, 1975).
2.
Air transport. Little is known of the effects of flight on
sheep or lambs, but one study suggests that unshorn
sheep in two-tiered crates suffered some ventilation
problems while the plane was not in flight (Allsup,
1975).
3.
Sea transport. The main problems seem to be in the
handling of the sheep. Sheep must be conditioned to
eat pellets before boarding the ship; hand-fed sheep
that are used to this type of feed do not have this
problem. Ship hygiene and Salmonella
losses, poor ventilation with high
temperatures and humidity, fluctuating
and changing diets can all cause problems.
4. Rail transport. On a long rail
trip, adult Merino sheep seldom lie down
in railway trucks, even on a five-day
journey. When rested after travelling for two to four days
without water or food, no preference for either was
shown, but after five days there was a preference for
water. In the rest pens, only 0.4 kg of lucerne hay per
sheep was eaten in 24 hours; so if the regulation four
one-hour rests were given, very little food would be
taken (Sutton and Heever, 1968).
During
long transportation where a lairage period is
allowed, sheep require sufficient time to drink before a
subsequent journey is undertaken (Jackson et al.,
1999).
If feed
is provided during a break from transport,
and sheep are not provided with sufficient drinking time,
dehydration can result due to consumption of large
amounts of dry feed (Jackson et al., 1999).
Sheep
require a lairage of more than 8 hours to gain
any real benefit (Knowles, 1998).
The
behaviour of sheep generally is little changed
under conditions of poor welfare, such as injury or
overcrowding (Knowles, 1998). Thus sheep
seem to be particularly tolerant of
transportation compared with other farm
animal species.
During
transportation of sheep by road, they ate
less, ruminated less and lay down less (Ewbank et al.,
1990).
Sheep
will ruminate while being transported and if
they are transported at low enough densities, they will
lie down and be able to rest to some extent. However,
they do not lie down as much as they would in a static
pen at a similar stocking density (Knowles, 1998).
Driving
conditions play a role in the behaviour of
sheep during road transport. The rougher the journey,
the more likely is bruising and the greater is the
increase in cortisol levels (Ruiz-de-la-Torre, 2001).
After a
trip lasting 24 hours, slaughter lambs did not
return to normal drinking patterns until 14 hours into
recovery; normal eating patterns were not resumed until
16 hours later and even after 24 hours of recovery, the
lambs were not standing as much as prior to transport
(Knowles, 1998).
Sheep
that are to be transported by sea on journeys
of less than 8 hours should be fasted of water and food
(18 hours prior to departure) to reduce the incidence of
death or sickness. On longer journeys, the sheep
should be fed 2–3 hours prior to the start of the journey
(Shupe, 1985).
Ewes
introduced to a new flock show minimal grazing
and increased vocalising and walking. The newly
introduced sheep tend to remain at the edge of the flock
(Baldock et al., 1990).
Exposure
to a familiar feed (e.g., hay) will increase
the food and water consumption (up to 4.9 times) of
sheep transported to a new environment (Hall et al.,
1993).
CATTLE
1. Road
transport. If cattle are allowed to settle down at
the beginning of a journey they will
travel without difficulty. Several
studies take the lowering of the head as a
sign that cattle have settled, and this may occur as soon
as 30 minutes after travel commences. It has been
noted that weaned calves hold their heads high in the
early stages of road travel and, where this was not
possible, they tend to lie down and be
trampled on by others (Kilgour and
Mullord, 1973). They also tend to bunch
their heads to the centre during road travel and
avoid contact with pen walls. They swayed as a group,
avoiding the side rails of the truck. During fast, flat
land travel with corners, their bodies
tended to be side on to travel, but when
hilly roads were encountered, they moved
in line with the direction of travel. When calves
were released to pasture after 25 hours of penned
conditions, the prime need was for
exercise, with grazing next, and water
only a third consideration (Kilgour and
Mullord, 1973).
(The
most common orientation for cattle is perpendicular
or parallel to the direction of travel. These positions
may be chosen to improve security and balance
on a moving vehicle (Tarrant, 1990).
There
is little difference seen between responses of
bulls and steers to transport (Knowles, 1999).
At the beginning of a journey, cattle are generally
anxious and restless and defecate and urinate frequently
(Knowles, 1999).
Cattle
do not readily lie down while being transported
and this forced standing causes them to become
physically tired during transport in a way that is not seen
in pigs and sheep (Knowles, 1999).
Loss of
balance is a major determinant in injuries in
transported cattle. In a study by Tarrant, 1990, it was
found that one-third of events where cattle were floored
during transport were caused by loss of balance during
cornering.
Knowles
et al. (1999) also found that when one or
more animals lay down (on a 31-hour journey), it
became more difficult for the others to remain standing
and several animals lost their footing and fell down.
The
space allowance for animals during transport
can significantly influence carcass weight, level of
bruising and welfare of the animals
(Eldridge et al., 1988).
It is
recommended (Eldridge et al., 1988) that for
cattle 350–400 kg live weight, a space allowance within
10% of 1.16 sq m per animal is satisfactory.
Animals
on a double-decked vehicle drank less
often than those on a single-decked vehicle (Knowles et
al., 1999).
2.
Air transport. Hereford
cattle were flown from Gatwick
(UK) to Shanghai. During the flight the animals
browsed at hay and, although water was
offered, they did not attempt to drink.
There was an increase in the number
lying down as the journey went on, and animals
appeared unconcerned during the whole flight
(Jackson, 1979). The longer the flight continued, the
more cattle lay down (Jackson, 1974).
3. Sea
transport. There is a lack of information on the
behaviour of cattle during sea
transport. Shipping fever can be brought
on by a cascade of events initiated by
stress (Tarrant et al., 1993).
4.
Rail transport. Cattle are
restless in railway trucks for up to
five hours after starting their journey. They show
muscular trembling, butting of other animals, considerable
movement, defecation and urination (Bisschop,
1961). An average of 10% rested at any one time on the
journey. The behaviour of Angus and Hereford calves
was monitored while travelling in a rail car for a 57-hour
journey (Friend et al., 1981). Calves commenced eating
and drinking immediately after being loaded. Up to 75%
of the calves could lie down while the car was not in
motion (14.4 hours of the trip) and they stood at high
speeds (80 km/hr) but continued to eat, drink and move
about. Self and mutual grooming commonly occurred
while travelling up to 40 km/hr, and they ate and drank
readily. They were also adept at maintaining their balance
and conducting ‘normal’ activities even when the
ride was very rough.
Cattle
off-loaded in rest kraals during rail transport
showed a preference for either food or water; and after
a marked urge to walk around, ate and drank for 40 to
100 minutes, and then lay down (Sutton et al., 1967).
Long-distance road or rail transport can cause an
elevation of meat pH, which can be reversed by resting
and feeding the animals for two days or longer after the
end of a long journey (Tarrant et al., 1993).
Road and
rail transport at low and high space densities
significantly increases bruising, reduces carcass
weight and impacts on the welfare of the animals
(Eldridge et al., 1988).
Liveweight decreased with increased travelling time
(more than 31 hours). Plasma osmolarity and urea
concentration increased, suggesting
dehydration (Knowles et al., 1999).
PIGS
It has been shown that pigs subjected to simulated
transport for 30 minutes had a rise in heart rate to 150
beats/minute compared with a resting control level of
100 beats/minute. As pigs became familiar with the
experimental situation by repeated exposure, the
increase in heart rate in response to transport simulation
was reduced. There was no significant change in
heart rate (Stephens and Rader, 1982). It seems that
pigs do get used to transport stress.
1.
Road transport. During
the whole journey pigs should
have light, even if only dim, to facilitate
orientation and social contact. Water
should be provided at intervals during
stops (Van Putten, 1977). The driver’s skill is
important and as long as lorries are well ventilated and
the pigs do not suffer from heat stress, pigs tend not to
be restless.
2.
Air transport. A number
of short air journeys (1.5–2.5
hours) have been monitored when breeding pigs were
exported. Boars in particular are subject to heat stress,
and it is also important to transport these animals in
familiar social groups to reduce agonistic behaviour
(Jackson, 1979). Pigs are reasonably good travellers by
air, provided they are not over-fed prior to embarkation.
On occasions they need spraying with water to reduce
temperatures and when mortality does occur it is usually
the result of overcrowding (Scott 1978).
Recommendations for air transport of pigs include:
avoid the use of tranquillisers; pre-mix pigs in constant
groups one week before shipping to reduce fighting;
provide an adequate water supply; keep a dim light on
during the entire flight; control dust; avoid heat stress;
and instruct the receiving party to avoid post-transport
losses by taking jet-lag into account (Lambooij et al.,
1993).
3.
Rail transport. Pigs that
travelled from England to France and
thence to Italy over seven days were only
restless when hungry or thirsty. The movement of the
train appeared to have little effect, except when violent
shunting was being carried out. Huddling occurred on a
very few occasions when it became cold at the pig’s
level, but most of the time the pigs wandered around the
pen in apparent contentment. The behaviour in all the
pens tended to be synchronised, even though the pens
were well separated (Jackson, 1979).
Transport
does induce stress in pigs. Climatic conditions,
loading density, duration of transport, cold
draughts, heat stress, social stress, vibrations and noise
all affect the condition of the pigs during transport
(Lambooij et al., 1993).
Small
rises from the normal pig body temperature of
39–42 degrees proved fatal (Lambooij et al., 1993), so
adequate ventilation on transport vehicles and the
weather of the day must be taken into consideration.
Pigs try
to stay in contact with one another in stressful
conditions and this can be seen in huddling behaviour
during transport. Pigs in a stressful situation are
calmed by the presence of their pen mates (Lambooij et
al., 1993).
The
transport of pre-pubertal pigs often leads to
hypothermia after 30 minutes of travel (Parrott, 1998).
Fasting
and transport over various distances in pigs
showed no detrimental effects on meat quality. The
meat of the animals showed an increase in tenderness
with no reduction in juiciness (Becker et al., 1988).
HORSES
1.
Road transport. It has
been shown that rear-facing
transport provides horses with the physical and
psychological security and comfort that
is wanting in conventional,
forward-facing transport. Once en route, the
horse sees objects slipping harmlessly away from it,
rather than threateningly towards it. During the
rear-facing transit, the horse’s rump is
at the trailer bulkhead area, rather
than the fragile head, and any emergency
stop will be received on the rump (Cregier, 1980, 1981).
Rear-facing transport is less stressful than
forward-facing,
as indicated by the horses having a lower mean
HR. The horses rested their rumps on the bulkhead and
carried their heads in a lower, more natural position
(Warren et al., 1996).
2.
Air transport. Horses
are usually accommodated in
moveable padded crates, the sides and floor of
which are covered with coconut matting,
and the front and rear are thickly
padded. Some horses are frightened by the
engine noise at take-off or landing and are inclined to
rear. Adequate restraint is necessary; panic-stricken
horses have had to be destroyed during turbulence on
an aeroplane, while strapped-in horses were less restless
and at the most, spent time stamping their feet
incessantly throughout the entire flight (Judge, 1969).
Horses should be loaded so that they face either fore or
aft, so that they can flex the joints of their hindquarters
at take-off (Scott, 1978).
3.
Sea transport. Flooring of the
carrying crates should be of antislip
material and each box should be provided
with a strong head-stall with ropes attached on either
side and suitable provision for slinging horses, if
necessary. If horses have been fed and
watered within one hour of starting the
voyage, they need no provisions for a
further 12 hours. Horses must not be carried if there
are reasonable grounds, at the time of sailing, to expect
adverse weather conditions that might lead to suffering
(Scott, 1978).
The
entrance to the transport vehicle should be
wide, well-lit and uncomplicated, to take into account
the natural fear a horse has of confinement and eyesight
restrictions (Houpt, et al., 1993).
Water and
feed intakes during transit and after
arrival are critical to maintain normal body functions and
this has been recognised as a problem, in particular, for
racehorses (Mars et al., 1991).
Compared
to experienced horses that load easily and
stand normally, naive yearlings are reluctant to
enter a vehicle via a ramp and consequently often have
higher heart rates (Warren et al., 1995).
DEER
It is suggested that deer be
transported in a darkened box or closed
vehicle to prevent panic. During transport
it is better if deer stand up, as lying down can result in
bruising, fractured ribs or broken bones. When deer are
about to be released from the boxes, they should be put
into the paddock with the release door facing the farthest
fence of the paddock so if the deer are frightened
they have plenty of space to run without damaging
themselves. The farmer should stand well back and out
of sight after the door is open. The deer will explore if
allowed to be undisturbed for several days (Anderson,
1978).
Deer
prefer to orient themselves parallel to and facing
the direction of travel, avoiding diagonal orientations
(Jago et al., 1997).
Stocking
density of deer should be around 0.42 sq m
per animal so that the deer can remain in
contact
with others to help maintain balance around corners
(Jago et al., 1997).
On longer
trips it is suggested by Jago et al. (1997)
that stocking densities should be lowered to allow deer
to lie down.
The
distance travelled has no effect on agonistic
behaviour. When in groups, large animals initiated agonistic
behaviour that was usually directed at the smaller
members of the group (Jago et al., 1997).
Road
surface influences the behaviour of deer during
transport but increased distance of travel has no
additional effect on behaviour or ultimate pH (Jago et
al., 1997).
Bruising
due to stress during transport accounts for
an average economic loss of 26.9% of the carcass
value (Selwyn and Hathaway, 1990).
Pre-slaughter handling (including transport) results
in an increase in creatine kinase (CK), aspartate
aminotransferase (AST), glucose, cortisol,
lactate and a decrease in magnesium (Jago
et al., 1997).
Transportation plus prolonged lairage in an unfamiliar
environment has minimal effect on venison quality
(Grigor et al., 1997b).
RECOMMENDATIONS
From the discussion of transport and associated
problems involved, it is apparent that
certain management procedures would make
the whole process easier both for man and
his animals. Recommendations include:
1. Familiarising animals with yards and
yard-handling.
2.
Grouping animals well before transport so social
groups become established and the rate of agonistic
activity is lessened.
3.
Grouping animals of similar age, size and sex.
4.
Dehorning calves or breeding polled cattle will
improve welfare during transport and marketing.
5.
Appropriate design for animal yards. It is recommended
that pens are long and narrow so that animals
enter through one end and leave through the other
(Grandin, 1990b).
6.
Appropriate design for transport vehicles.
7.
Appropriate design for loading and unloading facilities.
The maximum recommended angle for adjustable
ramps for cattle, pigs and sheep is 25 degrees
(Grandin, 1990b).
8.
Adequate attention must be paid to the transport environment
(temperature, ventilation, humidity, food, water,
etc.).
9.
Adequate rest periods must be allowed.
10.
Proper handling by the handlers.
Model
Codes of Practice now cover most aspects of
animal welfare in Australia, including road and rail
transport of livestock. Similar
recommendations exist in Europe for the
transport of farm animals.
Handlers
must treat horses and cattle correctly to
prevent memory traces associated with fear developing
in the amygdala. This can determine how an animal
reacts to future fearful or negative experiences
(Grandin, 1999a).
Cattle
that are quietly handled have smaller flight
zones and are easier to manage in the future than cattle
that have been roughly handled (Grandin, 1999a).
Indoor
housing pens should have even, diffuse lighting
that minimises shadows. Cattle, pigs and sheep
have a tendency to move more easily from a dimly illuminated
area to a more brightly illuminated area
(Grandin, 1990b).
Deer-loading facilities should be wide enough for
group movement but narrow enough to stop the animals
from turning around (Grigor et al., 1998a).
Cattle
should be transported by rail and road at a
medium density to minimise weight loss and bruising
(Eldridge et al., 1988).
A lairage
period of 24 hours should be provided for
recovery after a 14–31 hour journey (Knowles et al.,
1999).
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